"The plant is emmenagogue and hepatic[61, 257]. An infusion has been used to bring on a tardy menstruation and to treat diarrhoea[257]"

"Young leaves - raw or cooked[2, 4, 9, 13, 54]. This species has the nicest tasting leaves of the genus[153], they usually have a mild agreeable flavour[217] especially in the spring[K]. They can be added to salads, cooked like spinach or used in soups etc[183]. The leaves contain about 30 - 40mg of vitamin C per 100g[173], 1.2% protein, 0.3% fat, 2.4% carbohydrate, 1.2% ash[179]. A zero moisture analysis is also available[218]. It might be best, though it is not essential, to remove the marginal prickles[9]"

"The leaves are applied as a poultice to inflammatory swellings[4]. An infusion of the leaves and roots is febrifuge and tonic[240]"

"An infusion of the leaves and roots is febrifuge and tonic[240]"

"Young root - cooked[12]. They are woody and not very acceptable[144]"

"Stems - cooked like asparagus or rhubarb[12]. They are best if the outer skin is removed first[183]"

"The stem juice is a powerful hydrogogue and cathartic, it should be used with great caution since it can cause colic and tenesmus[218]. The gum has been used as a cure for the opium habit[257]"

"The milky sap has been used as a chewing gum by the Maoris of New Zealand[183]."

"The latex in the sap is used in the treatment of warts[218]. It is also said to have anticancer activity[218]"